Research is a systematic searching for information. What distinguishes scientific research from other research are the same characteristics that distinguish science from other ways of knowing; scientific research is a systematic process of inquiry that is based on combined empirical-rational principles. That combination makes heavy demands on the adequacy of the information it uses.
A scientific assumption is a statement or an idea that we tentatively accept as being true without examining it further. Scientists share several basic assumptions about nature and the role of science in understanding nature:
Empirical observations constitute the facts of research. Facts are those events that can be empirically observed. In psychology, observed facts include the physiological structures of participants, the physical conditions around them, and the behavior of the participants and the other organisms around them, including the researcher. The major category of facts studied in psychology is the behavior of organisms.
In addition to studying behavioral facts, psychologists also study non-behavioral events, such as emotion, attitudes, intelligence, thinking, and so on. These events are not classified as facts because they cannot be directly observed; instead of being observed by the researcher, they are inferred by the researcher. Drawing an inference is an intellectual process in which we arrive at ideas based on observations and/or other ideas. The inference is a creation of the researcher.
Nonobservable inferred events, such as gravity, electricity, memory, or the ego, are rational ideas that have been created by the researcher. They are not facts. The ideas constructed in this way by the researcher are called constructs. Once constructed, they are used by the researcher analogically--that is, as if they were actually facts.
When we use facts as a basis for developing constructs, our thinking moves from a specific event (an observation) to a more general idea (a construct). This rational step from specific to general is called induction or inductive thinking. Moving rationally from a general construct to a more specific fact or idea is called deduction or deductive thinking. Both are rational thought processes that together form a cornerstone of science.
Theories are formalized sets of concepts that summarize and organize observations and inferences, provide tentative explanations for phenomena, and provide the bases for making predictions. They are carefully constructed from empirical observations and constructs using both inductive and deductive logic. We make the distinction between several types of theories. Inductive theories begin with a solid empirical base and gradually build to more abstract levels. Deductive theories represent the more traditional theories in which the abstract concepts are central and deductions from the theories are the focus of research. Functional theories involve an equal emphasis on both induction and deduction. A fourth type of theory is the model, which is an analogical representation of reality. Models are usually more limited in their scope and less developed than other theories.
Theories are not simply right or wrong. Rather, theories are judged on how useful they are in organizing information, explaining phenomena, and generating accurate predictions.
Constructs help to explain relationships among facts. In science we can develop constructs based on facts. Further, we can then use the constructs as bases for predicting new facts. By systematically putting together facts and constructs we create models, which are representations of parts of the universe. The real universe and any phenomenon in it can be represented by models. These models help us to organize knowledge about the reality that the models represent. Conceptual models in science are important in helping us to organize facts and constructs. All models share the following characteristics:
Models can be developed to represent any events, including scientific research. The model of research presented here, like all scientific models, is incomplete and tentative. This model is labeled Research: A Process of Inquiry. It includes two major dimensions: the phases of research and the levels of constraint.
Psychological research proceeds in an orderly manner from initial ideas through communication of findings. These are the phases of research. Each has its own characteristics, and different work is accomplished in each.
Research is carried out at various levels of constraint (i.e., levels of demands made on the adequacy of the information and on the processing of that information). Thus, within science some methods of research are more demanding than others. This concept of levels of constraint provides the second dimension of our model of research. It is a dimension of precision, structure, and control. By levels of constraint we mean the degree to which the researcher imposes limits or controls on any part of the research process.
All scientists who work with living creatures are bound by ethical principles, which are constantly evolving. The concern for the potential misuse of science dates back two centuries. The book Frankenstein was a parable of how an unchecked science could literally produce monsters. Professional organizations now routinely develop and refine ethical guidelines that must be followed by scientists.