Ninth Edition CoverGraziano & Raulin
Research Methods (9th edition)

Chapter 9 Fill-in-the-Blank Questions
Controls to Reduce Threats to Validity

Now that you have familiarity with the new key terms of this chapter, it is time to begin using the terms in the context of the chapter material. See if you can fill-in-the-blanks in the following discussions. To get the correct answer, click on the blank.

  1. Controls are needed to counteract threats to __________ . In the text, __________ is defined as any procedure used by the researcher to counteract potential threats to the validity of the research.

  2. Different factors may threaten each of the various types of validity. __________ validity may be threatened if an unreliable dependent measure is used or if an assumption of a statistical test is violated. Any of the confounding variables discussed in Chapter 8 (maturation, history, etc.) might threaten __________ validity. If __________ exists, it is possible that some factor other than the independent variable might be responsible for observed differences in the dependent variable. Confounding can exist in __________ validity if a theory other than the theory tested by the experiment is equally or more plausible, given the pattern of results. __________ validity is threatened whenever we cannot confidently generalize the results to other participants, times, or settings.

  3. Your text describes four categories of control procedures. The first is __________ control procedures, which can be applied in almost any research setting. The second set of controls deals with __________ and experimenter effects. The third set of controls utilizes participant __________ and __________ to minimize threats to validity. The final set of controls is achieved through specific experimental __________.

  4. Among the general control procedures are: preparation of the __________, response __________, and __________. The most basic general control procedures are those that clearly define the research __________, i.e., the setting in which the research is to take place. The major advantage of a __________ setting over lower constraint settings is that many __________ variables can be eliminated in the laboratory. This eliminates most of the sources of __________ and increases __________ validity. However, the constraints of the laboratory may actually threaten __________ validity, because the laboratory setting is very different from the natural setting. Generalizing to the natural setting might, therefore, be unwarranted. However, a properly constructed research setting should duplicate as many of the features of the natural environment as possible to facilitate __________. The selection of measurement instruments that are both __________ and valid improves both statistical and construct validity. Replication is yet another general control procedure. __________ replication refers to repeating an experiment exactly as it was performed. __________ replication refers to the process of carrying out a study with slight modifications of procedures. In this type of replication, the modifications should lead to theoretically predictable results if the original findings are correct. Repeating a study with different operational definitions of the variables is referred to as __________ replication.

  5. __________ and __________ effects (such as demand characteristics and placebo effects) are serious threats to the validity of any study. A variety of techniques have been used to control for experimenter and participant effects including single-blind and __________-__________ procedures, automation, use of __________ measures, multiple __________, and the use of deception.

  6. __________ effects arise from the researcher's knowledge of: (l) the hypotheses being tested, (2) the nature of the experimentally controlled conditions, and (3) which __________ each participant is tested under. We can reduce __________ effects if we reduce the researcher's direct contact with and knowledge about the participants. Using an assistant, who is unaware of these factors (i.e., is __________ to these factors), reduces experimenter effects dramatically. This procedure is called a __________- __________ control procedure. A __________-__________ control procedure involves having the researcher blind to the assignment of each participant and the participants blind to their own assignments. This procedure controls not only experimenter effects but also __________ effects, such as the placebo effect. Other procedures are also available for the control of subject and experimenter effects. __________ of research procedures can move the experimenter away from the participant and, thus, minimize any effect that the experimenter might have on the participant's behavior. Using __________ measures of the dependent variable minimizes judgment on the part of the researcher, which can exacerbate experimenter effects if the researcher is not completely blind to participant assignment. Using multiple __________ allows us to evaluate the degree of objectivity in making observations. Finally, using __________ is a variation of the double-blind procedure. Here the participant is actively deceived about the purpose of the study to avoid any kind of participant effects.

  7. Control through participant __________ is the major control for external validity. We describe the results as externally valid if we are able to generalize the findings based on a __________ to the general __________. We make the distinction between the __________ population, which is the larger population to which we ultimately want to generalize, and the __________ population, which is a group of participants from which we can actually sample. The similarity of the target and accessible populations will largely determine how safely we can __________ the findings to the target population. To generalize findings to a population, the sample must be __________ of the population. Several procedures have been developed for obtaining representative samples from a population. __________ sampling involves selecting participants such that all participants have an equal chance of being selected and the selection of any one participant does not influence the selection of any other participant. __________-__________ sampling involves random sampling from subpopulations or strata that are defined by one or more critical organismic variables. __________-__________ samples are not randomly selected from the population, but, to the extent that they are similar to the population, some generalization is possible.

  8. Once participants have been selected, we must assign participants to conditions. Unbiased __________ assignment is critical in true experiments. This unbiased assignment may be accomplished in several ways. __________-__________ assignment involves assigning participants to conditions with a random procedure, such as using the random number table. ________-_________-________ involves assigning participants to groups until one participant has been assigned to each group and then repeating that process until all participants have been assigned. __________-__________ assignment requires that participants first be matched on a critical variable before the assignment process begins. If we have two groups, participants would be matched in __________ ; if we have three groups, participants would be matched in triplets. Then, within each set of matched participants, participants would be randomly assigned to the available conditions. Other matching procedures are also available, such as matching groups without actually matching participant-for-participant. A variation of the matching procedure is to equate groups by holding the __________ constant. Yet another procedure is to match by building the __________ into the study.

  9. Control achieved through specific experimental __________ is primarily focused on the protection of __________ validity. Experiments generally employ __________ groups that are comparable to the experimental groups at the start of the experiment. Groups are usually equated at the start of the experiment by having participants __________ to the groups in an unbiased manner.