Glossary Items Starting with "I"
- icon
- Small pictures on a computer screen that represent a
program, action, or data set. Clicking on the icon will usually
start a program or action.
- idea-generating phase of
research
- First step in any research project during which the
researcher selects a topic to study.
- identity
- A characteristic of the abstract number system in which each
number has a specific meaning or identity.
- incidental comparison
- See
post hoc test.
- incidental learning
- Learning that occurs without specific reinforcement, usually
while learning a different task.
- incomplete
counterbalancing
- See
counterbalancing.
- independent-groups
design
- See
between-subjects design.
- independent samples
- Samples that include different participants in each group
and in which the selection of participants for one sample does
not influence the selection of participants for any other
sample.
- independent variable
- Any variable in research that defines separate groups of
participants. Participants may be assigned to these groups on
the basis of either (1) some preexisting characteristics (differential
research) or (2) some form of random assignment (experimental
research).
- individual differences
- Natural differences between people. Individual differences
tend to obscure effects of an independent variable on the
dependent measure(s).
- inductive reasoning
- Reasoning from the particular to the general. Used to
generate theories or models based on particular observations or
ideas.
- inductive theory
- Inductive theories are built on a strong empirical base and
tend not to stray far from that empirical base. Often contrasted
with
deductive theory and
functional theory.
- inference
- Any conclusion drawn on the basis of some set of
information. We draw inferences on the basis of empirical data
we collect and ideas we construct.
- inferential statistics
- Statistical procedures that compute the probability of
obtaining the particular pattern of data if all participants
were actually drawn from the same population. If the probability
of obtaining such a pattern of scores is low, we reject the
hypothesis that all participants were drawn from the same
population (null
hypothesis) and conclude that there were meaningful
differences between groups or conditions.
- informed consent
- Critical principle in the ethical treatment of participants.
Participants have the right to know exactly what they are
getting into and to refuse to participate.
- informed consent form
- A form that is signed by each human participant prior to the
beginning of the study. The informed consent form must present
enough detail about the study and its risks to permit
participants to make informed decisions about their
participation. The consent form should be reviewed and approved
by the
Institutional Review Board as part of their
evaluation of the research proposal.
- initial
equivalence (principle of)
- The groups to be compared in an experiment must be
equivalent at the start of an experiment.
- Institutional
Review Board (IRB)
- Formal body that operates in most institutions that conduct
research. The IRB reviews all research proposals to determine if
they meet ethical guidelines.
- instrumentation
- Potential confounding variable involving any change in the
measuring instrument over time that causes the instrument to
give different readings when no change has occurred in the
participant.
- instruments subsection
- See
apparatus section.
- interaction effects
- Combined effect of two or more independent variables on the
dependent variable that is more than the sum of the individual
effects. Interactions can be measured only in factorial designs.
- internal
consistency reliability
- Index of how homogeneous the items of a measure. Items that
are homogeneous correlate strongly with one another, suggesting
that all items are measuring the same characteristic.
- internal validity
- Accuracy of the research study in determining the
relationship between the independent and the dependent
variables. Internal validity can be assured only if all
confounding variables have been controlled.
- interpretation phase of
research
- Research phase in which the results of statistical analyses
of data are interpreted in light of (1) the adequacy of control
procedures, (2) previous research, and (3) existing theories
about the behavior under study.
- interrater reliability
- Index of the consistency of ratings between separate raters.
It is indexed by the correlation between the ratings of two
raters.
- interrater
reliability coefficient
- A correlation coefficient expressing the degree of agreement
between two or more raters. See
reliability.
- interrupted
time-series design
- Type of research design suitable for either single
participants or groups in which multiple measures of the
dependent variable are taken before and after an experimental
manipulation. Time-series designs provide some control for
history and maturation, even without the inclusion of a control
group.
- interval scale
- Scale of measurement in which the distance between any two
adjacent scores is the same as the distance between any other
two adjacent scores but zero is not a true zero. An example of
an interval scale is temperature measured in either Centigrade
or Fahrenheit.
- interview schedule
- A standardized interview, with each question spelled out for
the interviewer. Interview schedules provide consistency in
interviews.
- introduction
- The first substantive section of a research paper in which
the authors review previous research and theory to provide the
framework and rationale for the study.
- intuition
- A way of acquiring knowledge. In intuition, ideas come to
people supposedly without intellectual effort or sensory
processes.
- invasion of privacy
- Ethical issue in research. Researchers should make every
effort to protect participants' privacy by maintaining
confidentiality of records.